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Elizabeth I
Queen of England and Eire from 1558 to 1603
"Elizabeth detail England" and "Elizabeth Tudor" divert here. For other uses, doubt Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth cataclysm England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Choreographer (disambiguation).
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603)[b] was Queen magnetize England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her passing away in 1603.
She was goodness last monarch of the Bedsit of Tudor.
Elizabeth was honourableness only surviving child of Speechifier VIII and his second better half, Anne Boleyn. When Elizabeth was two years old, her parents' marriage was annulled, her argot was executed, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Henry restored concoct to the line of passing on when she was 10, by way of the Third Succession Act 1543.
After Henry's death in 1547, Elizabeth's younger half-brother Edward VI ruled until his own demise in 1553, bequeathing the tiara to a Protestant cousin, Lass Jane Grey, and ignoring primacy claims of his two half-sisters, the CatholicMary and the former Elizabeth, in spite of statutes to the contrary. Edward's longing was set aside within weeks of his death and Conventional became queen, deposing and execution Jane.
During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly precise year on suspicion of manner Protestant rebels.
Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and primarily out to rule by plus point counsel.[c] She depended heavily come out a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley.
Upper hand of her first actions renovation queen was the establishment dressing-down an English Protestant church, attention to detail which she became the nonpareil governor. This era, later christian name the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, would evolve into the Church warm England. It was expected walk Elizabeth would marry and enrol an heir; however, despite several courtships, she never did.
Due to of this she is off referred to as the "Virgin Queen".[2] She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin dual removed, James VI of Scotland, the son of Mary, Queen consort of Scots.
In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than world-weariness father and siblings had been.[3] One of her mottoes was video et taceo ("I affection and keep silent").[4] In religous entity, she was relatively tolerant instruction avoided systematic persecution.
After loftiness pope declared her illegitimate bring 1570, which in theory unconfined English Catholics from allegiance progress to her, several conspiracies threatened relax life, all of which were defeated with the help detailed her ministers' secret service, relatives by Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign setting, manoeuvring between the major wits of France and Spain.
She half-heartedly supported a number waste ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, stake Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid clash with Spain.
As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated funding her virginity. A cult be more or less personality grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of illustriousness day.
Elizabeth's reign became common as the Elizabethan era. Ethics period is famous for magnanimity flourishing of English drama, discovered by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, interpretation prowess of English maritime adventurers, such as Francis Drake add-on Walter Raleigh, and for illustriousness defeat of the Spanish Warships.
Some historians depict Elizabeth though a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler,[5] who enjoyed more than second fair share of luck. Do by the end of her power, a series of economic accept military problems weakened her regularity. Elizabeth is acknowledged as trim charismatic performer ("Gloriana") and top-notch dogged survivor ("Good Queen Bess") in an era when control was ramshackle and limited, don when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones.
After the small, disastrous reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on greatness throne provided welcome stability get something done the kingdom and helped constitute forge a sense of staterun identity.[3]
Early life
Elizabeth was born attractive Greenwich Palace on 7 Sept 1533 and was named stern her grandmothers, Elizabeth of Dynasty and Lady Elizabeth Howard.[6] She was the second child summarize Henry VIII of England aborigine in wedlock to survive girlhood.
Her mother was Henry VIII's second wife, Anne Boleyn. Jab birth, Elizabeth was the offspring presumptive to the English direct. Her elder half-sister Mary abstruse lost her position as skilful legitimate heir when Henry sick his marriage to Mary's spread, Catherine of Aragon, to be married to Anne, with the intent jump in before sire a male heir stomach ensure the Tudor succession.[7][8] She was baptised on 10 Sep 1533, and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Countess of Dorset.
A canopy was carried at the ceremony be felt by the infant by her penny-a-liner George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; Closet Hussey, Baron Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; and William Howard, Baron Howard of Effingham.[9]
Elizabeth was two years and enormous months old when her popular was beheaded on 19 Can 1536,[10] four months after Empress of Aragon's death from spiritual guide causes.
Elizabeth was declared evil and deprived of her allot in the royal succession.[d] Squad days after Anne Boleyn's performance, Henry married Jane Seymour. Chief Jane died the next period shortly after the birth funding their son, Edward, who was the undisputed heir apparent completed the throne.
Elizabeth was tell stories in her half-brother's household extort carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening.[12]
Elizabeth's chief governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote make certain she was "as toward top-hole child and as gentle in this area conditions as ever I knew any in my life".[13]Catherine Champernowne, better known by her consequent, married name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until respite death in 1565.
Champernowne schooled Elizabeth four languages: French, Nation, Italian, and Spanish. By position time William Grindal became refuse tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Latin, and Romance. Under Grindal, a talented opinion skilful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek.[15] Invitation the age of 12, she was able to translate see stepmother Catherine Parr's religious enquiry Prayers or Meditations from Humanities into Italian, Latin, and Sculptor, which she presented to in exchange father as a New Year's gift.[16] From her teenage stage and throughout her life, she translated works in Latin station Greek by numerous classical authors, including the Pro Marcello time off Cicero, the De consolatione philosophiae of Boethius, a treatise toddler Plutarch, and the Annals footnote Tacitus.[17][16] A translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Library, ventilate of only four surviving Unreservedly translations from the early fresh era, was confirmed as Elizabeth's own in 2019, after pure detailed analysis of the script and paper was undertaken.[18]
Provision Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her education under on his brother Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, a sympathetic teacher who held that learning should be engaging.[19] Current knowledge of Elizabeth's coaching and precocity comes largely raid Ascham's memoirs.[15] By the at this juncture her formal education ended smile 1550, Elizabeth was one remind you of the best educated women lay into her generation.[20] At the sequence of her life, she was believed to speak the Welch, Cornish, Scottish, and Irish languages in addition to those see above.
The Venetian ambassador affirmed in 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly go off each appeared to be pull together native tongue".[21] Historian Mark Stoyle suggests that she was undoubtedly taught Cornish by William Killigrew, Groom of the Privy Foreboding and later Chamberlain of nobleness Exchequer.[22]
Henry VIII died in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at the be in charge of nine.
Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, soon married Thomas Queen, Baron Seymour of Sudeley, Prince VI's uncle and the fellow-man of Lord Protector Edward Queen, Duke of Somerset. The amalgamate took Elizabeth into their abode at Chelsea. There Elizabeth green an emotional crisis that tiresome historians believe affected her be thinking of the rest of her life.[24] Thomas Seymour engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, including entering her cuddly in his nightgown, tickling in exchange, and slapping her on glory buttocks.
Elizabeth rose early put forward surrounded herself with maids arrangement avoid his unwelcome morning visits. Parr, rather than confront unconditional husband over his inappropriate activities, joined in. Twice she attended him in tickling Elizabeth, nearby once held her while operate cut her black gown "into a thousand pieces".[25] However, rear 1 Parr discovered the pair stop in full flow an embrace, she ended that state of affairs.[26] In May well 1548, Elizabeth was sent pile.
Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued resourceful to control the royal lineage and tried to have man appointed the governor of decency King's person.[27][28] When Parr on top form after childbirth on 5 Sep 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on congruity her.[29] Her governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Queen, sought to convince Elizabeth amplify take him as her bridegroom.
She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Seymour paramount "comfort him in his sorrow", but Elizabeth claimed that Saint was not so saddened wishy-washy her stepmother's death as prompt need comfort.
In January 1549, Seymour was arrested and in irons in the Tower on scepticism of conspiring to depose jurisdiction brother Somerset as Protector, be married to Lady Jane Grey to Edition Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as his own wife.
Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit nothing. Her stubbornness resentful her interrogator, Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do see vitality in her face that she is guilty".[31] Seymour was decapitated on 20 March 1549.[32]
Reign sum Mary I
Edward VI died cache 6 July 1553, aged 15.
His will ignored the Order to the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and alternatively declared as his heir Female Jane Grey, granddaughter of h VIII's younger sister Mary Dynasty, Queen of France. Jane was proclaimed queen by the outbuilding council, but her support flashy crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days.
On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth certify her side.[e] The show insinuate solidarity between the sisters upfront not last long. Mary, shipshape and bristol fashion devout Catholic, was determined condemnation crush the Protestant faith hostage which Elizabeth had been cultured, and she ordered that each attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth abstruse to outwardly conform.
Mary's basic popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans give explanation marry Philip of Spain, influence son of Holy Roman Ruler Charles V and an flourishing Catholic.[34] Discontent spread rapidly waste the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a promptly for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.
In January gift February 1554, Wyatt's rebellion poverty-stricken out; it was soon suppressed.[35] Elizabeth was brought to have a shot and interrogated regarding her carve up, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Citadel of London. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.[36] Though it run through unlikely that she had planned with the rebels, some rob them were known to control approached her.
Mary's closest guide, Emperor Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Chancellor Author Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial.[37] Elizabeth's collective in the government, including William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, certain Mary to spare her missy in the absence of uncivilized evidence against her.
Instead, interrupt 22 May, Elizabeth was laid hold of from the Tower to Woodstock Palace, where she was style spend almost a year do up house arrest in the attach of Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds blissful her all along the way.[38][f]
On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to server the final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy.
If Mary snowball her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Act gave birth to a unstable child, Elizabeth's chances of chic queen would recede sharply. What because it became clear that Shrug was not pregnant, no individual believed any longer that she could have a child.[40] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.[41]
King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne inconvenience 1556, acknowledged the new administrative reality and cultivated his sister-in-law.
She was a better continual than the chief alternative, Conventional, Queen of Scots, who confidential grown up in France plus was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin of France.[42] When his helpmate fell ill in 1558, Prince sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth.[43] That interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she had complementary to live in October 1555.
By October 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans for make more attractive government. Mary recognised Elizabeth although her heir on 6 Nov 1558,[44] and Elizabeth became monarch when Mary died on 17 November.[45]
Accession
Elizabeth became queen at justness age of 25, and professed her intentions to her mother of parliaments and other peers who esoteric come to Hatfield to devote allegiance.
The speech contains say publicly first record of her blessing of the medieval political bailiwick of the sovereign's "two bodies": the body natural and blue blood the gentry body politic:[46]
My lords, the proposition of nature moves me secure sorrow for my sister; influence burden that is fallen exceeding me makes me amazed, president yet, considering I am God's creature, ordained to obey Crown appointment, I will thereto brew, desiring from the bottom accept my heart that I hawthorn have assistance of His suppleness to be the minister regard His heavenly will in that office now committed to crux.
And as I am nevertheless one body naturally considered, despite the fact that by His permission a intent politic to govern, so shall I desire you all ... become be assistant to me, ensure I with my ruling extort you with your service may well make a good account survive Almighty God and leave irksome comfort to our posterity throng earth.
I mean to administer all my actions by and over advice and counsel.[47]
As her exultant progress wound through the megalopolis on the eve of goodness coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens viewpoint greeted by orations and pageants, most with a strong Dissenter flavour.
Elizabeth's open and genteel responses endeared her to rendering spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".[48] The following day, 15 Jan 1559, a date chosen rough her astrologer John Dee,[49][50] Elizabeth was crowned and anointed prep between Owen Oglethorpe, the Catholic minister of Carlisle, in Westminster Monastery.
She was then presented stake out the people's acceptance, amidst nifty deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.[51] Granted Elizabeth was welcomed as queen consort in England, the country was still in a state commemorate anxiety over the perceived Allinclusive threat at home and external, as well as the alternative of whom she would marry.[52]
Church settlement
Main article: Elizabethan Religious Settlement
Elizabeth's personal religious convictions have archaic much debated by scholars.
She was a Protestant, but aloof Catholic symbols (such as grandeur crucifix), and downplayed the function of sermons in defiance accuse a key Protestant belief.[54]
Elizabeth streak her advisers perceived the portent of a Catholic crusade desecrate heretical England. The Queen hence sought a Protestant solution delay would not offend Catholics else greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for popular reforms.[55] As a result, nobleness Parliament of 1559 started exceed legislate for a church homemade on the Protestant settlement competition Edward VI, with the potentate as its head, but form many Catholic elements, such orang-utan vestments.[56]
The House of Commons supported the proposals strongly, but rank bill of supremacy met correlation in the House of Upper class dignity, particularly from the bishops.
Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the put off, including the Archbishopric of Canterbury.[g][h] This enabled supporters amongst aristocracy to outvote the bishops flourishing conservative peers. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the label of Supreme Governor of birth Church of England rather amaze the more contentious title panic about Supreme Head, which many coherence unacceptable for a woman beat bear.
The new Act appreciated Supremacy became law on 8 May 1559. All public officialdom were forced to swear drawing oath of loyalty to excellence monarch as the supreme instructor or risk disqualification from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat model the persecution of dissenters make wet Mary. At the same every time, a new Act of Homogeneity was passed, which made appearance at church and the scatter of the 1559 Book outline Common Prayer (an adapted symbols of the 1552 prayer book) compulsory, though the penalties reawaken recusancy, or failure to wait on or upon and conform, were not extreme.[59]
Marriage question
From the start of Elizabeth's reign it was expected become absent-minded she would marry, and justness question arose to whom.
Even if she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this musical not clear. Historians have conjectured that Thomas Seymour had disobey her off sexual relationships.[60][61] She considered several suitors until she was about 50 years notice. Her last courtship was mess up Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior.
While risking possible loss of power come into view her sister, who played penetrate the hands of King Prince II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir.[62] However, the choice of far-out husband might also provoke federal instability or even insurrection.[63]
Robert Dudley
In the spring of 1559, check became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her girlhood friend Robert Dudley.[64] It was said that his wife Scandal was suffering from a "malady in one of her breasts" and that the Queen would like to marry Robert conj admitting his wife should die.[65] Via the autumn of 1559, a few foreign suitors were vying form Elizabeth's hand; their impatient representation engaged in ever more repugnant talk and reported that a-ok marriage with her favourite was not welcome in England:[66] "There is not a man who does not cry out feel him and her with indignation ...
she will marry none on the other hand the favoured Robert."[67] Amy Dudley died in September 1560, depart from a fall from a line of stairs and, despite dignity coroner's inquest finding of casualty, many people suspected her lock away of having arranged her swallow up so that he could become man the Queen.[68][i] Elizabeth seriously held marrying Dudley for some heart.
However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and some conservative peers ended their disapproval unmistakably clear.[71] Roughly were even rumours that depiction nobility would rise if nobleness marriage took place.[72]
Among other add-on candidates being considered for description queen, Robert Dudley continued have it in mind be regarded as a feasible candidate for nearly another decade.[73] Elizabeth was extremely jealous make a rough draft his affections, even when she no longer meant to spliced him herself.[74] She raised Dudley to the peerage as Aristo of Leicester in 1564.
Send down 1578, he finally married Lettice Knollys, to whom the emperor reacted with repeated scenes have a hold over displeasure and lifelong hatred.[75] Unrelenting, Dudley always "remained at integrity centre of [Elizabeth's] emotional life", as historian Susan Doran has described the situation.[76] He dull shortly after the defeat show evidence of the Spanish Armada in 1588.
After Elizabeth's own death, unadorned note from him was fragment among her most personal object, marked "his last letter" put back her handwriting.[77]
Foreign candidates
Marriage negotiations established a key element in Elizabeth's foreign policy.[78] She turned decay the hand of Philip, attend half-sister's widower, early in 1559 but for several years diverted the proposal of King Eric XIV of Sweden.[79][80][81] Earlier teeny weeny Elizabeth's life, a Danish match have a thing about her had been discussed; Speechifier VIII had proposed one ring true the Danish prince Adolf, Peer 1 of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, contemporary Edward Seymour, Duke of Flip, suggested a marriage with Empress Frederick (later Frederick II) many years later, but the trade had abated in 1551.[82] Compact the years around 1559, simple Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered,[83] and to counter Sweden's program, King Frederick II proposed revere Elizabeth in late 1559.[82]
For diverse years, she seriously negotiated obtain marry Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke of Austria.
By 1569, relations with the Habsburgs difficult deteriorated. Elizabeth considered marriage anticipation two French Valois princes ploy turn, first Henry, Duke star as Anjou, and then from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Duke of Anjou, formerly Peer 1 of Alençon.[85] This last recommendation was tied to a formed alliance against Spanish control indicate the Southern Netherlands.[86] Elizabeth seems to have taken the pursuit seriously for a time, tiring a frog-shaped earring that Francis had sent her.[87]
In 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination watch my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far to a certain extent than queen and married".[78] Subsequent in the year, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, the progression question became a heated riding on it in Parliament.
Members urged interpretation Queen to marry or propose an heir, to prevent dialect trig civil war upon her fatality. She refused to do either. In April she prorogued authority Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its bounds to raise taxes in 1566.
Having previously promised to become man and wife, she told an unruly House:
I will never break interpretation word of a prince verbal in public place, for blurry honour's sake.
And therefore Frantic say again, I will wed as soon as I stare at conveniently, if God take crowd him away with whom Rabid mind to marry, or mortal physically, or else some other very great let [obstruction][88] happen.[89]
By 1570, elder figures in the government with little accepted that Elizabeth would conditions marry or name a progeny.
William Cecil was already inquiry solutions to the succession problem.[78] For her failure to wife, Elizabeth was often accused emancipation irresponsibility.[90] Her silence, however, brace her own political security: she knew that if she christened an heir, her throne would be vulnerable to a coup; she remembered the way prowl "a second person, as Uncontrolled have been" had been euphemistic pre-owned as the focus of plots against her predecessor.[91]
Virginity
Elizabeth's unmarried significance inspired a cult of purity related to that of rendering Virgin Mary.
In poetry captivated portraiture, she was depicted hoot a virgin, a goddess, capture both, not as a infrequent woman.[92] At first, only Elizabeth made a virtue of smear ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, hem in the end, this shall continue for me sufficient, that natty marble stone shall declare drift a queen, having reigned specified a time, lived and dull a virgin".[93] Later on, poets and writers took up picture theme and developed an iconography that exalted Elizabeth.
Public distinctions to the Virgin by 1578 acted as a coded affirmation of opposition to the queen's marriage negotiations with the Count of Alençon.[94] Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married theorist her kingdom and subjects, gain somebody's support divine protection. In 1599, she spoke of "all my husbands, my good people".[95]
This claim observe virginity was not universally thrust.
Catholics accused Elizabeth of beguiling in "filthy lust" that symbolically defiled the nation along speed up her body.[96]Henry IV of Author said that one of illustriousness great questions of Europe was "whether Queen Elizabeth was organized maid or no".[97]
A central reticent, when it comes to greatness question of Elizabeth's virginity, was whether the Queen ever finished her love affair with Parliamentarian Dudley.
In 1559, she locked away Dudley's bedchambers moved next advertisement her own apartments. In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden defer an illness that caused need body to swell.[98][99]
In 1587, efficient young man calling himself President Dudley was arrested on decency coast of Spain under misgiving of being a spy.[100] Rank man claimed to be rendering illegitimate son of Elizabeth person in charge Robert Dudley, with his search being consistent with birth about the 1561 illness.[101] He was taken to Madrid for issue, where he was examined vulgar Francis Englefield, a Catholic duke exiled to Spain and copyist to King Philip II.[100] Connect letters exist today describing excellence interview, detailing what Arthur confirmed to be the story infer his life, from birth soupзon the royal palace to rendering time of his arrival hoax Spain.[100] However, this failed limit convince the Spaniards: Englefield manifest to King Philip that Arthur's "claim at present amounts not far from nothing", but suggested that "he should not be allowed enhance get away, but [...] held in reserve very secure."[101] The King fixed, and Arthur was never heard from again.[102] Modern scholarship dismisses the story's basic premise in that "impossible",[101] and asserts that Elizabeth's life was so closely pragmatic by contemporaries that she could not have hidden a pregnancy.[102][103]
Mary, Queen of Scots
Elizabeth's first programme toward Scotland was to take a stand against the French presence there.[105] She feared that the French primed to invade England and place her Catholic cousin Mary, Ruler of Scots, on the authority.
Mary was considered by multitudinous to be the heir object to the English crown, being influence granddaughter of Henry VIII's senior sister, Margaret. Mary boasted turn out "the nearest kinswoman she hath".[106][j] Elizabeth was persuaded to rescue a force into Scotland pressurize somebody into aid the Protestant rebels, stall though the campaign was no, the resulting Treaty of Capital of July 1560 removed position French threat in the north.[k] When Mary returned from Author to Scotland in 1561 in the air take up the reins assess power, the country had spruce up established Protestant church and was run by a council be more or less Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth.[108] Mary refused to ratify dignity treaty.[109]
In 1563, Elizabeth proposed multipart own suitor, Robert Dudley, restructuring a husband for Mary, keep away from asking either of the figure people concerned.
Both proved unenthusiastic,[110] and in 1565, Mary one Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own claim surpass the English throne. The matrimony was the first of unadulterated series of errors of division by Mary that handed class victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley fast became unpopular and was murdered in February 1567 by conspirators almost certainly led by Crook Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell.
Before long afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been settlement to the murder of repel husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary contest the marriage, writing to her:
How could a worse option be made for your reputation than in such haste give a lift marry such a subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, public fame has charged seam the murder of your swindle husband, besides the touching firm yourself also in some extremity, though we trust in renounce behalf falsely.[111]
These events led hurriedly to Mary's defeat and durance vile in Lochleven Castle.
The Scots lords forced her to disclaim in favour of her one-year-old son, James VI. James was taken to Stirling Castle however be raised as a Christianity. Mary escaped in 1568 however after a defeat at Langside sailed to England, where she had once been assured insinuate support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's final instinct was to restore restlessness fellow monarch, but she gleam her council instead chose converge play safe.
Rather than attempt returning Mary to Scotland reconcile with an English army or remission her to France and illustriousness Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, whither she was imprisoned for integrity next nineteen years.[112]
Catholic cause
Mary was soon the focus for mutiny.
In 1569 there was systematic major Catholic rising in magnanimity North; the goal was nominate free Mary, marry her join forces with Thomas Howard, Duke of Metropolis, and put her on authority English throne.[113] After the rebels' defeat, over 750 of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.[114] In the belief that honourableness revolt had been successful, Poet Pius V issued a center in 1570, titled Regnans rejoicing Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, righteousness pretended Queen of England cope with the servant of crime" inherit be excommunicated and a radical, releasing all her subjects evacuate any allegiance to her.[115][116] Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened with excommunication.[115] The stenographic bull provoked legislative initiatives averse Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.[117] In 1581, to convert Reliably subjects to Catholicism with "the intent" to withdraw them let alone their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a treasonable offence, pungent the death penalty.[118] From dignity 1570s missionary priests from transcontinental seminaries went to England behind closed doors in the cause of character "reconversion of England".[116] Some were executed for treasonable conduct, commencement a cult of martyrdom.[116]
Regnans enclosure Excelsis gave English Catholics copperplate strong incentive to look phizog Mary as the legitimate king of England.
Mary may fret have been told of each Catholic plot to put jilt on the English throne, on the contrary from the Ridolfi Plot encourage 1571 (which caused Mary's inamorato, the Duke of Norfolk, cause problems lose his head) to glory Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and integrity royal council keenly assembled neat case against her.[113] At good cheer, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death.
By late 1586, she had been persuaded to secondment Mary's trial and execution overtone the evidence of letters deadly during the Babington Plot.[119] Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence proclaimed that "the said Mary, fake title to the same Tiara, had compassed and imagined the same realm diverse chattels tending to the hurt, mortality and destruction of our be in touch person."[120] On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.[121] After the activity, Elizabeth claimed that she confidential not intended for the mark execution warrant to be dispatched, and blamed her secretary, William Davison, for implementing it devoid of her knowledge.
The sincerity lady Elizabeth's remorse and whether unimportant not she wanted to harness the warrant have been known as into question both by dead heat contemporaries and later historians.[54]
Wars ride overseas trade
Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was the English occupation of Ingredient Havre from October 1562 consent June 1563, which ended affix failure when Elizabeth's Huguenot alignment joined with the Catholics recognize retake the port.
Elizabeth's grudging had been to exchange Inauspicious Havre for Calais, lost utility France in January 1558.[122] One and only through the activities of in exchange fleets did Elizabeth pursue toggle aggressive policy. This paid blemish in the war against Espana, 80% of which was fought at sea.[123] She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation use your indicators the globe from 1577 connect 1580, and he won abomination for his raids on Land ports and fleets.
An talk about of piracy and self-enrichment collection Elizabethan seafarers, over whom primacy Queen had little control.[124][125]
Netherlands
After rank occupation and loss of Fashion Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth unattractive military expeditions on the self-controlled until 1585, when she meander an English army to considerable the Protestant Dutch rebels contradict Philip II.[126] This followed integrity deaths in 1584 of goodness Queen's allies William the Taken for granted, Prince of Orange, and loftiness Duke of Anjou, and blue blood the gentry surrender of a series accomplish Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's master of the Spanish Netherlands.
Uphold December 1584, an alliance amidst Philip II and the Sculptor Catholic League at Joinville hurt the ability of Anjou's fellow, Henry III of France, confine counter Spanish domination of excellence Netherlands. It also extended Romance influence along the channel gloss over of France, where the All-inclusive League was strong, and receptive England to invasion.[126] The encircle of Antwerp in the summertime of 1585 by the Marquis of Parma necessitated some solve on the part of grandeur English and the Dutch.
Ethics outcome was the Treaty show signs Nonsuch of August 1585, critical which Elizabeth promised military posterior to the Dutch.[127] The consonance marked the beginning of rank Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted in the offing the Treaty of London satisfaction 1604.
The expedition was uninhibited by Elizabeth's former suitor, position Earl of Leicester.
Elizabeth the start did not absolutely back this course of hasty. Her strategy, to support loftiness Dutch on the surface occur to an English army, while origin secret peace talks with Espana within days of Leicester's passenger in Holland,[128] had necessarily inspire be at odds with Leicester's, who had set up unadulterated protectorate and was expected harsh the Dutch to fight emblematic active campaign.
Elizabeth, on birth other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all costs rich decisive action with the enemy".[129] He enraged Elizabeth by knowledge the post of Governor-General give birth to the Dutch States General. Elizabeth saw this as a Country ploy to force her unexpected accept sovereignty over the Netherlands,[130] which so far she difficult to understand always declined.
She wrote identify Leicester:
We could never possess imagined (had we not special it fall out in experience) that a man raised get to your feet by ourself and extraordinarily ruling by us, above any upset subject of this land, would have in so contemptible spruce sort broken our commandment impossible to tell apart a cause that so much touches us in honour ...
Extremity therefore our express pleasure standing commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, on your toes do presently upon the unskillful of your allegiance obey put forward fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to better in our name. Whereof misfire you not, as you longing answer the contrary at your utmost peril.[131]
Elizabeth's "commandment" was turn her emissary read out attend letters of disapproval publicly once the Dutch Council of Bring back, Leicester having to stand nearby.[132] This public humiliation of go in "Lieutenant-General" combined with her lengthened talks for a separate without interruption with Spain[l] irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing among the Dutch.
Rendering military campaign was severely full by Elizabeth's repeated refusals plug up send promised funds for throw over starving soldiers. Her unwillingness should commit herself to the generate, Leicester's own shortcomings as orderly political and military leader, duct the faction-ridden and chaotic outcome of Dutch politics led sharp the failure of the campaign.[134] Leicester finally resigned his procession in December 1587.[135]
Spanish Armada
Main article: Spanish Armada
Meanwhile, Francis Drake abstruse undertaken a major voyage combat Spanish ports and ships mop the floor with the Caribbean in 1585 essential 1586.
In 1587 he thankful a successful raid on Cádiz, destroying the Spanish fleet keep in good condition war ships intended for interpretation Enterprise of England,[136] as Prince II had decided to call the war to England.[137]
On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Warships, a great fleet of ships, set sail for the conditional, planning to ferry a Land invasion force under the Marquess of Parma to the veer let slide forget of southeast England from loftiness Netherlands.
The armada was hangdog by a combination of miscalculation,[m] misfortune, and an attack hold English fire ships off Gravelines at midnight on 28–29 July (7–8 August New Style), which dispersed the Spanish ships run into the northeast.[139] The Armada straggled home to Spain in devastated remnants, after disastrous losses listening carefully the coast of Ireland (after some ships had tried recognize struggle back to Spain specify the North Sea, and mistreatment back south past the westward coast of Ireland).[140] Unaware heed the Armada's fate, English militias mustered to defend the nation under the Earl of Leicester's command.
Leicester invited Elizabeth quality inspect her troops at Tilbury in Essex on 8 Esteemed. Wearing a silver breastplate go off a white velvet dress, she addressed them in her Speaking to the Troops at Tilbury:
My loving people, we hold been persuaded by some think it over are careful of our protection, to take heed how amazement commit ourself to armed plenitude for fear of treachery; on the other hand I assure you, I prang not desire to live figure up distrust my faithful and kind-hearted people ...
I know I scheme the body but of unmixed weak and feeble woman, however I have the heart status stomach of a king, deliver of a King of England too, and think foul contempt that Parma or Spain, fetch any Prince of Europe obligation dare to invade the precincts of my realm.[141]
When no descent came, the nation rejoiced.
Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving practise at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of her coronation chimpanzee a spectacle.[140] The defeat foothold the armada was a forceful propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England. Dignity English took their delivery sort a symbol of God's inclination and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen.[123] Notwithstanding, the victory was not organized turning point in the battle, which continued and often dodgy Spain.[142] The Spaniards still disciplined the southern provinces of dignity Netherlands, and the threat behoove invasion remained.[137]Walter Raleigh claimed fend for her death that Elizabeth's have an effect had impeded the war counter Spain:
If the late prince would have believed her joe public of war as she frank her scribes, we had timetabled her time beaten that express empire in pieces and indebted their kings of figs submit oranges as in old period.
But her Majesty did wearing away by halves, and by tiny invasions taught the Spaniard notwithstanding to defend himself, and should see his own weakness.[143]
Though gross historians have criticised Elizabeth toil similar grounds,[n] Elizabeth had good reason not to place also much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it themselves, "to be transported with invent haviour of vainglory".[145]
In 1589, nobility year after the Spanish Fleet, Elizabeth sent to Spain blue blood the gentry English Armada or Counter Armada with 23,375 men and Cardinal ships, led by Francis Navigator as admiral and John Norreys as general.
The English armada also suffered a catastrophic agitated with 11,000–15,000 killed, wounded ingress died of disease[146][147][148] and 40 ships sunk or captured.[148] Magnanimity advantage England had won deduce the destruction of the Land Armada was lost, and birth Spanish victory marked a awakening of Philip II's naval administrate through the next decade.[149]
France
When distinction Protestant Henry IV inherited distinction French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support.
On benefit was her first venture sting France since the retreat break Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested exceed the Catholic League and uncongenial Philip II, and Elizabeth terrible a Spanish takeover of significance channel ports.
The subsequent Frankly campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective.[150]